Rituals and festivals Essay Example for Free

Rituals and festivals Essay Rituals and festivals have been a part of traditional European life for many years. They involved all religions, social classes and happened in almost all areas throughout Europe. Back in these times, there were no forms of entertainment like television, cell phones and video games. People depended on one another to entertain themselves. People in Europe would also be punished or tortured in front of the whole town to control public outbursts. An example of this is known as charivari. Some of these festivals and rituals were for political purposes too. Festivals and rituals of traditional European society mainly served as enjoyment, enforcement of public rules, and political purposes in daily life. Festivals and rituals were a type of fun and entertainment for Europeans. In a painting by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, it shows a picture of Europeans at a carnival, enjoying the days before Lent. Usually the days before lent people indulge themselves with alcohol. In the painting, it shows a man wearing a robe with a bucket as a crown of thorns and a stick as his cane. Jesus Christ is being mocked by representing the violence of Lent. This shows that the people are just enjoying the carnival because they are mocking their ruler (Wikipedia). The picture also shows people running around with drinks and food and also playing games with each other (Doc. 3). In a document by R. Lassels, a French traveler, he comments on Italian Carnival customs. He states â€Å"All this festival activity is allowed the Italians that they may give a little vent to their spirits, which have been stifled for a whole year and are ready to choke with gravity and melancholy† (Doc. 5). Since Lassels is from France, it means he really does not know Italians. So the fact that he said that the Italians really enjoy festivals is true because he could tell when he saw them at the carnival since he does not really know them (POV). In a comment made by Baltasar Rusow, a Lutheran pastor, he talks about the saint’s feast day festival. In one part of his comment, he states â€Å"Around these bonfires people danced, sang and leapt with great pleasure, and did not spare the bagpipes† (Doc. 2). This quote shows that the Europeans were enjoying the festival. Baltasar Rusow is a Lutheran pastor, so since it was the saint’s day feast, he probably was there so he saw first-hand how happy the Europeans actually were (POV). Festivals and rituals let Europeans forget all the bad and have fun with each other. When someone did something wrong in a town, the whole village would come and punish them too. In a  stang song from Lincolnshire England, they talked about a man who beat his wife and what they did to him. The song reads â€Å"Old Abram Higback has been beating his good woman; but he neither told her for what or for why, but he up with his fist, and blackened her eye. Now all ye old women, and old women kind, get together and be of a mind; collar him and take him to the out-house, and shove him in. Now if that does not mend his manners, then take his skin to the tanners† (Doc. 9). This shows that if one person is in trouble or was being abused, the whole town would help you get payback. If there were no rituals then he would have gotten away with it. There were also rituals such as charivari that punished Europeans for crimes. Charivari is also known as riding stang. A Russian official wrote about a woman who was ill after her punishment. He stated â€Å"A village policemen brought her before the village assembly, where they hung on her neck the basket of berries she had gathered, and the entire commune led her through the village streets with shout, laughter, songs, and dancing to the noise of washtubs, frying pans, and bells† (Doc. 10). Since the man was the officer that wrote the report, he may have been bias because he may have stretched the truth to make the situation worse than it actually was (POV). If there was not any ritual of punishment, the lady may have done it again. It shows the rest of the people what will happen to them if they commit a similar crime. Punishments for offenses and crimes were often public and embarrassing. Charivari was a very scary thing for a person. Elizabeth Gaskell, an English author, talked about a woman who forced to ride stang after abusing the other sex. She said â€Å"They hunt the delinquent and mount her on their horse astride with her face to the tail. So they parade her through the nearest village or town, drowning her scolding and clamour with the noise of frying pans, just as you would scare a swarm of bees† (Doc. 8). The purpose of riding was embarrassment. It makes an impact on the suspect and the rest of the town. This allowed the people in the town to enforce laws. Europeans also used rituals and festivals to help support political ideas. A man named Giovanni di Carlo, a Dominican monk, wrote about when rich fathers and their sons would switch positions so the sons will know what to do when they are older. Giovanni says â€Å"their very sons had put on their clothes and the sons had learned all of their gestures, copying each and every one of  their actions and habits in an admirable way† (Doc. 1). The sons learn everything about their father, even the clothes they wear. It gives the father a chance to know what the sons go through and the sons to know how their father’s lives are. If this ritual was not in place, then the sons wouldn’t know what to expect when they are older or they wouldn’t have been able to bond with their dad. Henry Bourne, a man from Great Britain, commented on the rituals in the Scilly Islands. Henry states â€Å"The servant and his master are alike and everything is done with an equal freedom† (Doc. 6). Since Henry is not from Scilly Bourne, he does not know for sure if the servants are treated fairly, making his point bias (POV). This quote shows that the king treats his servant like family because it is a ritual. A police inspector from Toulouse, France showed that certain festivals or arguments had a specific goal. The police officer said â€Å"When a royalist widower of the Couteliers neighborhood remarried, he began receiving raucous visits night after night. Most people who took too active a part were sent to the police court. But that sort of prosecution was not very intimidating† (Doc. 7). This quote is saying that people really respect rituals and customs and if someone is going to break them they will be punished. People really cared about rituals and used festivals and punishment to show that they need to be followed. Festivals and rituals of traditional European society mainly served as enjoyment, enforcement of public rules, and political purposes in daily life.

The Democratic Peace Theory Politics Essay

The Democratic Peace Theory Politics Essay War, conflict, warmongering, and power balance are just a few concepts involved within a nations history. Along with many other concepts, War understood as an intentional armed conflict between communities in order to achieve political goals, has supported the public policy of many nations. In 1832 the Prussian military strategist Carl von Clausewitz (1832, p.5) defined War as an act of violence to compel our opponent to fulfill our will, demonstrating how fundamental War was for nations that time. Although there are many arguments to support the nations warmongering policies during the past decades there has been a discussion on how those policies might be necessary if some theorists have proven that Democracies dont fight Democracies (Rummel, 1999). This essay will examine the existing arguments on why democracies do not fight each other using The Democratic Peace Theory and will give conclusions on how effective could be this theory during the present days, where the concept of War has changed. The Democratic Peace Theory [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies dont attack each other, they make better trading partners and partners in diplomacy. William J. Clinton (January 1994) The Democratic Peace Theory also called Mutual Democratic Pacifism gives a possible explanation on why democracies do not to war with each other. Among others writers, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant outlined a first relevant idea in his essay Perpetual Peace (1795). Kants theory is based on a world with countries sharing a common a constitutional republic as political regime, where people would appeal for a continuous or perpetual peace as an ideal for living. The premise of Kants idea is that people will not decide to go on war unless to defend themselves and because of this there would be no aggressor nations and the war occurrences would end. For Kant, the reluctance of the people to support war and its related costs restrains democratic leaders from engaging conflicts with other nations. After Kant, this strain of thought, where democracies are reluctant to use violent means against other democracies or other forms of governments, was continued across the centuries. The Kantian Idea of a pacific union fostered by shared or common values, cosmopolitan rights and the right of nations based on a federation of free states, had a support after the First World War, when idea of the right of nations to self-determination inspired the creation of the League of Nations. Important academics like Small and Singer (1976), Rummel (1979), Doyle (1986), Bueno de Mezquita and Lalman (1986), Geva, DeRouren and Mintz (1993), Rummel (1997), Starr (1997) and Danilovic and Clare (2007) have contributed with their work to support this theory. Due to the multiple understandings of the basic elements of the Democratic Peace Theory is important to define the concepts of democracy and war. Rummel (1999, p.10) provides an interesting definition of democracy as democracies in its 20th century form means: regular elections for the most powerful government positions, competitive political parties, near universal franchise, secret balloting and civil liberties and political rights, in addition pre-20th democracies should be identified by periodic, competitive elections, that the powerful can be so kicked out of power, and that a body of citizens hold equal rights regardless of class or status. However, Rummel does not take in account the transparency as an important element for a democracy. Transparency, understood as the open possibility of observation and discussion of a Government decisions and policies is a requisite for a modern democracy and reduces the possibilities of the governments to abuse. Regarding to The concept of War, Most and Starr (1989) as cited in Starr (1997, p.154) defines war as a sustained violent conflict fought by organized armed forces which are directed by a governmental authority. Although this definition is comprehensive it is necessary to be actualized due to the changing components of modern war. Forsyth (2004, p.17) define war as an act of force by a nation-state, crime organization, terror group, drug cartel, revolutionary group, or coalition of states to compel an enemy to do ones will, accept a specific ideology, or prevent or allow unfettered criminal activity. The causes of war might include failures of diplomacy, communications, economic policies, or inadequate internal security. Wars should result in improved security for an affected nations citizens, but often result in degraded or deteriorated social conditions. Although the Democratic Peace Theory is quite controversial and has both weakness and strengths, its relative simplicity has challenged the predominant realist and neorealist theories of International Relations (IR) that have predominated in the international arena for several centuries. During the past decades, research undertaken in California (Bueno de Mesquita and Lalman, 1986), Texas (Geva, DeRouren and Mintz, 1993), (Geva and Mintz, 1993), Hawaii (Rummel, 1997) and Illinois (Danilovic and Clare, 2007) confirmed in some extent the veracity of the Democratic Peace Theory. These studies showed that statistically the probability of a war between two democratic states is very low and that the democratic leaders are less interested in using military force or violent actions against other democracies. The theory by itself and the results of these studies are deeply debated, but it is possible to derive some basic conclusions. First, the republican liberalism, as a theory of International Relations (IR) that supports the Democratic Peace Theory, might question the applicability of the realist theory of IR, which argues that the balance of power and common strategic goals are the main point of explanation for the stable and peaceful relations between democratic nations. The presented researches and arguments suggest that democratic sates are continuously motivated by the necessity of a peaceful coexistence with its neighbors using the same regulations that characterize their domestic policy. These nations expect that other democracies will solve misunderstandings using consideration and a nonviolent scheme, and that their leaders will continuously foster collaborative and peaceful relations with each other. A good example of this reasoning is the speech of United States President, G orge W. Bush, who in 1994 said And the reason why Im so strong on democracy is democracies dont go to war with each other. And the reason why the people of most societies is dont like war, and they understand what war means. Second, the Democratic Peace Theory might challenge the usefulness of other political ideas, different from democracy, in todays world. This thesis is supported by Rummel (1989, p.10) when states that Democracy is a general cure for political or collective violence of any kind it is a method of nonviolence. Since a significant number of academic works identify democracies as political system less susceptible to create and promote violent means of foreign policy, with a relatively unrestricted amount of civil rights and participation, it is possible to identify democracy as a more desirable political system when compared with totalitarian, fascist or communist regimes. Finally, political process such as transparency, cooperation, democratization, and integration could improve the relations among nations. Starr (1997, p.155) highlights the importance of these elements when suggest that the theories of integration stress the role of learning in the development of norms of cooperation and a sense of community, they stress the need for mutual benefits and the positive impact of the interdependence on the management of interdependent relations. However, it is important to point out the fact that unstable democracies or nations within a democratization process are not completely peaceful, and that might occur when the political institutions are not strong enough to support the system or when the country leading sectors are intimidated by the transition process. Two classic and different streams of thought, one structural and one normative, explain the Democratic Peace Theory. On the one hand, the structural variant maintain that the organizations or institutions are restricted to go on war due to the diverse economical, social and political costs for the government and the population, making war an undesirable option for the resolution of misunderstandings between nations. In addition, the importance of individual freedoms and free elections, maximize the leaders political responsibilities inasmuch as they might replaced if fail to maintain an adequate foreign policy. This view has been supported in the work of Geva, DeRouren and Mintz (1993, p.224) when concluding: the major reason why the use of force against other democracies is counterproductive from a political standpoint is because it is perceived by the public as a failure of foreign policy. Democratic institutions such as transparency, political pluralism, and legal rights, among ot hers, make it difficult for governments and its leaders to create false reasons to convince their population to declare war to other state. Transparency is an important factor when thinking about democratic dyads because it means that both states can look trough each other and know, or infer, their intentions. Starr (1997, p.157) states, such transparency means that each party has too much information about the other to create convincing enemy images, for either elite or masses. On the other hand, a normative variant, sometimes called cultural explanation, maintains that common liberal and democratic values explain the stability and peaceful relations between democratic states. According to this variant, the existent culture regarding to democratic political values and conflict resolution means, support truthful ties between states and its leaders. In addition, these leaders expect that their counterparts will also understand the necessity of solving the differences without violent methods. In this extent is very important to emphasize how the democratic perception of a certain state made by other, could modify the motivation for warmongering policies. Supporting this, Elman (1997) argues that political ideology, therefore, determines how democracies distinguish allies from adversaries: democracies that represent and act in their citizens interests are treated with respect and consideration, whereas non-democracies that use violence and oppression against th eir own people are regarded with mistrust and suspicion. Another explanation in addition to the structural and normative explanation of the Democratic Peace Theory is the Power Transition Theory formulated in 1958 by A.F.K. Organski. This theory presents the international politics arena as a hierarchy with 4 levels of power between the states (a dominant state, great powers, middle powers and small powers), analyzing the cyclic occurrence of wars and the effect of transition power in the occurrence of conflicts. Organski (1980, p.19) states that An even distribution of political, economic, and military capabilities between contending groups of nations is likely to increase the probability of war; peace is preserved best when there is an imbalance of national capabilities between disadvantaged and advantaged nations; the aggressor will come from a small group of dissatisfied strong countries; and it is the weaker, rather than the stronger; power that is most likely to be the aggressor. This work suggests, therefore, that democracies are sat isfied states that share strong economic goals and are less likely to fight about territory, in other words, peaceful means of discussion will prevail but not violent ones. Even though the Democratic Peace Theory provides a plausible explanation for the non-violent behavior between democratic states, a great amount of criticism exist among the academy. This criticism could be divided in two variants, first, one related to the methodology used to undertake the researches and analyze the empirical data. Several academics argue that there is always some degree of subjectivity regarding to the studies performed and the results are, in some extent, affected by this prejudices.

Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844â€89). Poems 1918, Spring and Fall: To a young child :: essays research papers fc

Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–89). Poems 1918, Spring and Fall: To a young child Mà RGARÉT, à ¡re you grà ­eving Over Goldengrove unleaving? Leà ¡ves, là ­ke the things of man, you With your fresh thoughts care for, can you? à h! à ¡s the heart grows older 5 It will come to such sights colder By and by, nor spare a sigh Though worlds of wanwood leafmeal lie; And yet you wà ­ll weep and know why. Now no matter, child, the name: 10 Sà ³rrow’s sprà ­ngs à ¡re the same. Nor mouth had, no nor mind, expressed What heart heard of, ghost guessed: It à ­s the blight man was born for, It is Margaret you mourn for. Gerard Manley Hopkins was an innovator whose poetry was not published until decades after his death. Hopkins was born in Stratford, Essex, which is near London. He attended Balliol College, University of Oxford. While attending the university, Hopkins was sporadically occupied with verse writing. His passion for religion becomes clearly evident during this time through his poems. His poems revealed a very Catholic character, most of them being abortive, the beginnings of things, ruins and wrecks, as he called them. (Gardner 6) In 1866, he converted to Roman Catholicism, during the Oxford movement. John Henry Newman received him into the Roman Catholic Church. He left Oxford to become a priest, and entered the Jesuit Order in 1868. This is the time when Gerard Manley Hopkins presented a conflict of a man torn between two vocations, religion and the aesthetic world. He also presented a heroic struggle of a man who was so dedicated to one profession that he deliberately sacrificed anoth er profession based on the belief that God willed it to be so. Hopkins is well known for his creation of the term inscape. Inscape can be considered as an individual distinctive beauty. The sensation of inscape, any vivid mental image, is known as instress. (Gardner 11) For Hopkins, inscape was more than sensory impression. It was an insight; by Divine grace into an ultimate reality by seeing the pattern, air, and melody as it were God’s side. (Gardner 27) In "Spring and Fall", Hopkins demonstrates a separation between humanity and nature and a separation between humanity and God. His use of imagery and his sympathetic tone allows the readers to make both distinctions and similarities between adult and child, nature and man, and conscious and intuitive knowledge. The poem is addressed to a child.

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Before 2003 there were six million people living peacefully and all of the sudden there were three million people displaced, 400,000 people dead, and one despot. This sudden change was due to the Darfur government killing the citizens of Darfur. It began in 2003 when two peacekeeping rebel groups challenged the Darfur government, accusing it of neglect. The government responded by killing and raping as many people they could making it a national genocide. A Genocide is the action of deliberately killing a group of people, specifically one certain ethnic group or religion. Darfur's government and the Janjaweed army have been devastating lives of the Darfurian people by destroying their homes and killing many Darfurians since the beginning of 2003. The Genocide has been said to have officially started on February 26, 2003 when a rebel group called DLF publically claimed that they had attacked Golo, Western Darfur. Even before the genocide had began there were several attacks on the Darfur government by rebel groups. For example, on February 25, 2002 the rebels attacked an army garrison on a mountain. This all started in Sudan, which is the largest country in Africa, located south of Egypt. Darfur is one of the eighteen states in Sudan is about the size of Texas. Darfur is broken up into five smaller states, which are West Darfur, Central Darfur, East Darfur, South Darfur, and North Darfur. Darfur is bordered by Chad, Libya, and Central African Republic. The Darfurians have not only been troubled by the government, but also by the lack of food and water. The rough and desert like terrain makes it hard to grow crops. The region is also very drought prone making it hard to grow crops too. The state of Darfur has about six mi ... ...e in that one shooting 136 men was killed. This incident happened in Garisla, an area south of Zingei, in Wadi Saleh. Darfur's government and the Janjaweed army have been devastating lives of the Darfurian people by destroying their homes and killing many Darfurians since the beginning of 2003. Darfur’s genocide has impacted the world greatly by warning people what could happen with a corrupt government. The current issue has put fear in everyone’s lives by making them think about every decision that the government is making. I believe that the current situation in Darfur is unfair for the people. Instead of living life, they are trying to survive. A newspaper has said that the â€Å"United Nations officials have characterized the situation as ‘the greatest humanitarian catastrophe ever.’† Everyday the Darfurians wake up thinking â€Å"will I see the sun rise tomorrow?†

jacksonian :: essays papers

jacksonian Although the flood waters of poverty, unemployment, and famine known as the Great Depression began to recede under Hoover’s administration, it was Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his administration who saw to the retreat of the destitute ways of life that had enveloped the nation. When FDR took office, he intended to change the government in order to include help for the plight of the â€Å"forgotten man†. He had a plan for the change known as the â€Å"New Deal†. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs aimed at three R’s - relief, recovery, and reform. Also, through his New Deal programs, one can see all he did during the Depression to relieve suffering and jump start the economy. In the New Deal program, Roosevelt had short and long - range goals. One of his first short-range goals was relief - especially in the first 100 days. At the time of Roosevelt’s inauguration, one out of every four people was unemployed. Since FDR was intent upon ending human suffering first and foremost, he decided to be open about using federal money to aid the unemployed. With the okay from FDR, the Hundred Days Congress passed much legislation in order to help in the first short range goal - to give immediate relief. In 1933, Congress created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which provided employment in fresh - air government camps for about 3 million uniformed young men. Their work included reforestation, fire fighting, flood control, and swamp drainage. Also new in 1933 was the Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA). It was the first major effort of Congress to deal with the unemployed adults, and its chief purpose was immediate relief rather than long-range re covery. Other legislation passed by Congress included the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), and Civil Works Administration (CWA). Roosevelt’s other short - term goal, recovery, was also off to a good start in the first 100 days of FDR’s administration. There were many legislative acts passed by Congress in order to allow for a quick recovery for the nation. The two best examples of recovery in the first 100 days would be the Emergency Banking Relief Act, which allowed the president to regulate banking transactions and foreign exchange and to reopen solvent banks, and the National Industrial Recovery Act. The National Industrial Recovery Act, which created the National Recovery Administration (NRA), designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed, and the Public Works Administration (PWA), intended for industrial recovery, as well as unemployment relief.

Developmental Psychology and Good Quality Activities Essay

1.1 It is important to remember that these six areas of learning do not work in isolation but are in fact interlinked. Good quality activities will cover more than one area of development. For example, allowing children to access the outdoors will not only support their physical development, but encourage their communication and exploration of their environment. Where a child experiences a delay in one area, it is likely to limit their learning and development in the other five†¦a child with cerebral palsy who experiences hand-eye coordination difficulties is likely to find completing a puzzle difficult therefore hindering her problem solving, reasoning and numeracy. It is therefore vital that settings recognise each child’s individual needs and plan holistically in order to help children achieve their full potential across the six areas of learning. Personal, Social and Emotional Development †¢ Dispositions and attitudes †¢ Self confidence and attitudes †¢ Making relationships †¢ Behaviour and self control †¢ Self care †¢ Sense of community Communication, Language and Literacy †¢ Language for communication †¢ Language for thinking †¢ Linking sounds and letters †¢ Reading †¢ Writing †¢ Handwriting Problem Solving, Reasoning and Numeracy †¢ Numbers as labels and for counting †¢ Calculating †¢ Shapes, space and measures Knowledge and Understanding of the World †¢ Exploration and investigation †¢ Designing and making †¢ ICT †¢ Time †¢ Place †¢ Communities Physical Development †¢ Movement and space †¢ Health and bodily awareness †¢ Using equipment and materials Creative Development †¢ Being creative/responding to experiences, expressing and communicating ideas †¢ Exploring media and materials †¢ Creating music and dance †¢ Developing imagination and imaginative play 1.2 We assess and record all the children’s observations and document them in their learning journeys. These get used by the staff to 9show how well the child has developed in their learning, the staff try and put at least 3 observations a month into the journeys. Once the child leaves the setting they can take them onto where ever they are going next. We also use daily diaries what the key workers fill out to show the parents how their day has gone and what they have eating. More important documents e.g. accident forms get filled out and stored away in the office where the manager will assess them and then lock them away for confidentiality. 4.2 Using a topic a child is really interested in can allow for sustained shared thinking it can be talking about something or doing something which encourages conversation like we have done planting with our children this has really captured their imagination the children are talking about what they think seeds are going to grow into what happens as the plants grows, what might the plant produce. We are getting the children to reach conclusions, and explore concepts at a deeper level. The children are thinking about processes and are making connections to things they have already learnt and new information. Processing the information we have given them making them think.

Would I Answer Honestly If I Was Participating in a National Crime Survey?

Would I answer honestly if I was participating in a national crime survey? Christina M Blanks Criminology CCJ 1017-12 Instructor Cedric Thomas Would you answer honestly if participating in a national crime survey asking about your criminal behavior, including drinking and drugs use? Why or why not? Yes I would answer honestly. The reason I would answer honestly is because it would help in the data, profiles, and to make sure that the results are correct, so there will not be any confusion in the data when criminologist go to profile criminals. Explain how honesty and dishonesty impact self report studies. If false information is given on a survey then the data is not accurate, and when criminologist go to use the data to profile a criminal it will not be correct. When true information is given on a survey, data will be entered correctly, and when time to profile a criminal it will be accurate and more affective. As long as you are honest on a survey or anything else, the results come out correct and can change data so that criminologist can create better profiles when profiling criminals. Also to better help criminologist figure out why a person committed the crime, what lead the person to commit a crime, and how they may be able to stop people from committing crimes. Self-report study is a method for measuring crime involving the distribution of a detailed questionnaire to a sample of people, asking them whether they have committed a crime in a particular period of time. Self-report study has been a good method for criminologists to determine the social characteristics of ‘offenders’. Self report studies involve confidential questionnaires that invite the respondents to record voluntarily whether or not they have committed any of the listed offences. Negative affectivity: how serious a threat to self-report studies of psychological distress? Brennan RT, Barnett RC. Harvard Graduate School of Education, Department of Administration, Planning and Social Policy, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. Women’s Health. 1998 Winter; 4(4):369-83. Serious questions have been raised about the common practice of relying on self-report measures to assess the relation between subjective role experiences on the one hand and both mental and physical health symptoms on the other. Such self-report measures may reflect a common underlying dimension of negative affectivity (NA), thereby leading to spurious results. In this article, we present findings from analyses in which we estimate, using a hierarchical linear model, the relation between subjective experiences in job and marital roles and self-reports of symptoms of psychological distress after controlling for NA in a sample of 300 full-time employed men and women in married couples. Results demonstrate (a) that NA can account for a great deal of the variation in self-reported psychological distress, as much as half in the case of the men in the sample; (b) that estimates of the relations between a self-reported predictor of social-role quality (e. . , marital-role quality, job-role quality) may be biased by failure to include NA as a predictor of self-reported psychological distress; (c) that the degree of bias in these estimates is dependent on the nature of the predictor, and (d) that the role of NA as a confounder does not appear to be dependent on gender. – ncbi. nlm. nih. gov Male and female differences in self-report cheating James A Athanasou, University of Technology, Sydney Olabisi Olasehinde, University of Ilorin – Nigeria Cheating is an important area for educational research, not only because it reduces the consequential validity of assessment results, but also because it is anathema to widely held public principles of equity and truthfulness (see Cizek, 1999 for a comprehensive review of the topic). Moreover, modern education is centered on numerous situations that really depend upon a student’s honesty. The purpose of this paper is to review the extent of academic cheating and to describe any gender differences in self-reports. pareonline. net/getvn. asp? v=8&n=5 References Brennan RT, Barnett RC. Harvard Graduate School of Education, Department of Administration, Planning and Social Policy, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. Women’s Health. 1998 Winter; 4(4):369-83. www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov James A Athanasou, University of Technology, Sydney Olabisi Olasehinde, University of Ilorin – Nigeria Cizek, 1999 www. pareonline. net/getvn. asp? v=8&n=5 http://www. sociologyindex. com/self_repor t_studies. htm